Mahatma Phule Fight for Women Emancipation

India has a long past civilization and in every stage of its history, women constitute half of its population, but their position in society is not the same in all the ages of history. Their position has been variously estimated and diametrically opposite views are expressed regarding their place in different stages of Indian civilization. Several factors including foreign invasions for centuries together, social movements, various geographic regions, different economic occupations, political stability and instability and religious affinity of the family to which woman belongs have always greatly influenced her status in the family as well as in the community.

The status accorded to women in society symbolizes its level of progress. The spirit of a civilization can be assessed by the way in which women are treated by the members of that civilization. Status of women is a topic of sociological studies and discussions for it mirrors the position of about 50% of the population of any society. Study of the history of human society reveals that in no society of the world, women enjoyed absolute equality on par with men. Everywhere they were subjected to inequality, discrimination and exploitation. In some societies their position has been comparatively better than their counterpart in some other societies. Even in the same society the status accorded to women has never been the same all through. It has been changing in keeping with the changes in the general conditions of society.

Scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal status with men in all fields of life. However, some others hold contrasting views, works by ancient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period. Rig Vedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their husband (swayamwara) scriptures, such as Rigveda and Upanishads mention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitreyi.

The important place assigned to women in India dates back to the time of the Vedas and Smritis. Man declared that where women were adored, Gods frequented that place. During the Vedic age the position of women in society was very high and they were regarded as equal partners with men in all respects. Who had not heard of Maiteryi, Gargi, Sati Annusuya and Sita. Women are said to be the deities of prosperity. The persons who desire affluence should honour them. By cherishing women one cherishes the goddess of prosperity herself and by afflicting her, one is said to pain the goddess of prosperity. In another place the same idea is developed in a still clearer form by laying down that women ought to be looked after carefully, as they are worthy of regard, virtuous, full of noble qualities and are bright adornment to the house and are in fact synonymous with the prosperity of the house.

Literary and historical records and researches have revealed that women held a position of equality with men during the Vedic periods. Women never observed purdah in the Vedic period. They enjoyed freedom in areas such as education, marriage, economic production, spending money, religious activities etc. They had liberty in selecting their mates. They could educate themselves. Widows were permitted to remarry. Divorce was however, not permissible to them. Women were given complete freedom in family matters and were treated as “Ardhanginis”. The concept of Ardhangini suggests that there was equal status to woman along with man and neither was superior to the other. The Atharva Veda observes how a bride had no chance of a good match, if she had not been educated as a brahmacharini. Women studied the Vedic literature like men and some of them, like Lopamudra, Ghosa and Sikata Nivavari, figure among the authors of the Vedic hymns. During the early Vedic period, Women in India enjoyed almost an equal status with men in different spheres of life. Vedic studies were then not the prerogative of man. Girls and boys were required to undergo Upnayanam ceremonies in order to undertake Vedic studies.

Though marriage was considered a religious duty, women had the right to remain spinsters throughout their life. Marriage was not forcibly imposed on them. There was no restriction on the age at marriage. Girls were given in marriage only after puberty that too, after completing their education and women had the right to select their life-partners. The practice of “Swaymavara” would serve as an evidence for the girl’s right to marital choice. Often there were also love marriages called “Gandharva Vivaha”.

According to Basham, family was the basic unit of the Rig Vedic Aryans who followed a “missed pastoral and agricultural economy. The family was then “staunchly patrilinear and patriarchal”. Basham infers that “The wife, though she enjoyed a respectable position, was definitely subordinate to her husband. Marriage was usually monogamous and apparently indissoluble, for no reference to divorce or re-marriage of widows occurs in Rig Veda. However, there was no system of Sati. Shakuntala Rao finds that “The Rig Veda does not mention anywhere the practice of the burning or burial of widows with their dead husbands”. During this period women selected her husband. The Swayamvara marriages of Sita, Draupadi, Savitri, Rukmini, etc give the evidence of this practice. Early marriage for girls became an established practice around 100 A.D. As regards the age of girls at the time of marriage is not referred to and girls were given away at a fairly mature age. The custom continued up to the time of the Dharmasutras, i.e., from 400 BC to 100 AD. Obviously, from about 200 AD, when child marriage had become a wide spread practice, a women had no chance to select her husband.

Like women of the Vedic age, the women of epic age in India held an honourable position at home. The two classical epics Ramayana and Mahabharata have also given a respectable place for women. In fact, women are the focal points of both the epics. Sita in the Ramayana and Draupadi in the Mahabharata are the cause for the wars which occur at the final phase of these epics. Both the epics make mention of the continuation of the marital practice of “Swayamvara” In both of these, we find vast references of the expression of courage, strong will power, and valour of women like Kaikeyi, Sita, Rukmini, Satyabhama, Subhadra, Draupadi, Savithri and others.

Later, during the period of Dharmashastras, the position of women underwent a major change. Daughters were regarded as second-class citizens when freedom of women was curtailed. Sons were given more importance. According to Altekar, “The discontinuance of Upanayanam, the neglect of education and the lowering of age at marriage produced disastrous consequences upon the position and status of women” during this period. The woman in this period was made to accept the secondary position. In several mythological stories wife’s loyalty to the husband was very much stressed. It was in this period that, masculine and priestly dominance began to take root and prevail. Due to the various restrictions imposed on the freedom of women some problems started creeping in. “In the social field, pre-puberty marriages came to be practiced, widow remarriage was prohibited, husband was given the status of god for a woman, education was totally denied to women. Custom of ‘Sati’ became increasingly prevalent, ‘purdah’ (veil) system came into vogue and practice of polygamy came to be tolerated. In the economic field, a woman was totally denied a share in her husband’s property. In the religious field, women were forbidden to offer sacrifices, prayers, practice penance and undertake pilgrimages”.

The medieval period proved to be highly disappointing for the status of Indian women for their status further deteriorated during this period. The Muslim invasion of India changed the direction of Indian history. The influx of these foreign invaders and the Brahmanical iron laws were the main causes for such degradation.

After the death of Harshavardhana (646 A.D) the Brahmanism without the benevolence of the Vedic period took hold of the Indian society with all its severe restrictions and rigidities. As a result women suffered a lot. Their freedom was curtailed, knowledge of scriptures and even of letters was denied. They were made the parasites on men. Caste laws dominated social life. Property laws reduced women to the status of slaves. Widows’ remarriage and levirate or “Niyoga” were now disallowed. Women could not inherit property. Girls were treated more as burdens or liabilities than as assets. This period is notorious, for the women in this period had to face a number of problems.

After the establishment of Mughal imperialism the status of women became much more pitiable. In order to save Hindu religion, maintain purity of blood and protect chastity of the women, the Brahmins made the rules regarding the women much more rigid. Education of girls was almost finished, Purdah system got much more encouraged and the age of girl’s marriage lowered down up to four years. The number of unseen and unmatched marriages increased. Widow Remarriage stopped completely and custom of Sati reached its peak. They were made subordinate under men from birth to death and after snatching all their rights and freedom the ‘household’ was made the only centre of their activities and hopes. She became the maid servant and the thing of consumption for her husband who got the right of exercising atrocities on her. Regarding the property, surely some improvements were made in this period. The widow and brotherless daughter started having some rights of succession respectively on the property of her husband and father. But the women could only consume it; neither could sell it nor could present it, so that it could be preserved for the next successor.

The practice of arranging the marriage of boys and girls before the attainment of puberty is known as child marriage. This made the girls to suffer a lot. The fear that Muslim invaders would kidnap or seduce the girls brought heavy pressure on the parents to arrange the marriage of their daughters at a very early age. Young girls had to bear the brunt of the family life, get children at an inappropriate age when they themselves were mentally immature, problem of ill-health made them still weak. Those who were unfortunate enough to lose their husband at an early age had to spend the rest of their lives in the most pitiable manner as unwanted widows.

Dharmashastras strictly prohibited the widow remarriage. The glorification of the ideal of ‘Pativratya’ was another hurdle in the path of widows’ remarriage; child widows had a miserable life. They were denied education, public life and most of the religious activities were tabooed for them. Their very presence on important occasion was considered to be disgraceful for they were treated as symbol of ill-omen. They were made to work like servants throughout their lives. Life for them made a few to lead an immoral life and some even became prostitutes. To prevent such sex offenses child widows were forced to shave their head and forsake all types of beautification in order to make them sexually unattractive.

The practice of ‘Sati’ indicates the decline in the status of Indian women. ‘Sati’ refers to a horrible practice in which the married women used to jump into the funeral pyre of their husbands with the hope of attaining ‘Sadgati’ or ‘Moksha’. It was actually an act of self-immolation. The glorification of ‘Pativratya’ and the degraded and intolerable widow life made many women to become ‘satees’ there were horrible instances in which women were forcibly pushed into the funeral fire of their husbands.

Purdah or Purdha system refers to the practice of women wearing a gown or veil to cover their face and upper part of the body. It was a common practice among the Muslim women. Purdah system was in practice only in the wealthy and royal classes among the Hindus. But, after the Muslim invasion, the Hindu women were also forced to wear the ‘Purdah’ mainly to escape from the sexy looks of the invaders and to protect themselves from being kidnapped or seduced.

Devadasi system represents another social evil which caused the degradation of Indian women. It is a custom that denies, in the name of religion, marital opportunity to a few women, insisting on them to become Devadasis or Basavis to serve the god in the temple as dancers and singers. They were sometimes made to cater to the sexual needs of pilgrims.